Category: History

From the 1600s, Dutch, French and German settlers arrived in South Africa and it was this community that was known as the Boers (Dutch: ‘farmers’). When neighbouring British settlers proposed a unification, with their newly-established policy of freeing all slaves in the British Empire, the Boers were appalled and set off on their ‘Great Trek’ (1836-52) northwards to claim adjacent territory. The British and the Boers rubbed along for a while but when gold was discovered on their border, tensions rose until the Boers initiated military action.

British soldiers in the first Boer War (1880-81) wore their traditional redcoats but by the end of the 2nd Boer War (1899-1902) they had swapped to khaki, since they had been easy targets for the Boers’ guerrilla tactics using the latest German rifles (bought with the gold).

Colonel Robert Baden-Powell (1857-1941) was one of the British leaders who kept their men’s morale up under siege from the Boers at Kimberley, Ladysmith and Mafeking. Eventually, reinforcements from the British Empire overwhelmed the Boers after what had been Britain’s most expensive war and a terrible forerunner for WW1 trench warfare.  Sadly, after gaining self-government in 1910 and full sovereignty in 1934, the Boers/Afrikaners reverted to previous prejudices and gradually implemented ‘apartheid’.

(Image: Bacon’s S.Africa Prints at picryl.com / Public domain)

Born in Fife, Adam Smith (1723-90) immersed himself in philosopy, ethics, logic theology and jurisprudence at the Universities of Glasgow and Oxford, as well as in deep conversations with leading intellectuals at his London clubs. The resultant published works  ~ ‘The Theory of Moral Sentiments’ (1759) and ‘An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations’ (1776) ~ were so weighty and thought-provoking, that not only Britain’s but Europe’s economic policies were revolutionised.

Smith lived in a time of extraordinary social transition to scientific thinking and the Industrial Revolution, which were creating new ways to gain wealth. He noted that this could be accelerated if: (a) labour was divided into single-process tasks leading to skilled, fast, mass productivity, and (b) government restrictions on trade (protectionism) were lifted, thereby encouraging free trade with foreign countries. This move away from individual craftsmen to factories entailed the development of consumerism.

Smith did not foresee some of the problems that eventually arose from taking his ideas to new lengths. However, his thorough analysis of human behaviour was driven by his desire to see an improvement in the lot of the common man and consequently the country as a whole. In this regard, Smith’s influence certainly succeeded.

(Images LtoR: Adam Smith statue [cropped] by Colin Smith at geograph.org.uk / CC BY-SA 2.0, factory floor by Daniel Foster at Flickr.com / CC BY-NC 2.0)

Camping out year-round in British weather is not recommended, but the women who decided to do just that outside RAF Greenham Common in 1981-2000 were utterly committed to their cause. They were alarmed at the threat of nuclear war and particularly the USA’s siting of cruise missiles at two UK locations. Consequently, what began as a 40-strong march from Cardiff to the airbase in Berkshire became the country’s longest-running women’s protest.

Greenham Common’s airfield was utilised in the Battle of Britain and by the late 1970s the Americans had installed state-of-the-art equipment and built the longest runway in Europe there. Now a country park measuring 4.5 x 0.5 miles, in 1982 30,000 women staged ‘Embrace the Base’ by holding hands all around its fence. In 1983 it was ‘Reflect the Base’ with 50,000 women holding up mirrors.

The Greenham Common Women’s Peace Camp also gained publicity when they resisted police trying to remove them on several occasions and some were arrested. Critics also accused them of abandoning their families; nevertheless, even after the missiles were removed in 1991 after the dissolution of the USSR, the women continued their vigil in protest against the Trident programme. Today there is a commemorative garden acknowledging their efforts where the camp once stood.

(Top image from ‘Embrace the Base’ in December 1982: Alan Stanton at Flickr.com / CC BY-SA 2.0)

“The British Empire was acquired in a fit of absent-mindedness.”

~ Sir John Seeley (1834-95)

 The enduring motivation behind the British Empire and those of our European competitors, was trade. Spreading Christianity was somewhere in the mix but the costly annexation of territory was not the goal. Rather, with the British Navy ruling the waves after the Battle of Trafalgar, it was the establishment of free trade ports along particular sea-routes that was of paramount importance.

 However in India, Britain’s East India Company reluctantly took over the remnant Mogul administration to help solve local disputes. North America attracted settlers and Australia received convicts. Britain’s pioneering of industrial methods engendered a desire to spread the advantages of roads, railways and telecommunications as well as education. Thereby the Empire gradually evolved.

Additions to the Empire were piecemeal and it was the settlers themselves who set out to expand their boundaries, not the government, which always preferred colonies to be self-governing. In the 1880s Germany scrapped free trade and spurred the ‘scramble for Africa’, especially after the Suez Canal was opened. This coincided with the emergence of the big bankers and loans to cash-strapped governments, a factor which rapidly dissolved all European empires after WW2.

(Image: Ramirez72, Andersmusician, Vadac at Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 2.5)

After the British Army’s evacuation from France in May 1940, the Germans believed the War was won, with Britain left debilitated. The Royal Navy was busy guarding supply lines and the Royal Air Force was vastly outnumbered by the Luftwaffe. When it became apparent that Britain would not play ball, a motley collection of boats was assembled on the French coast for the invasion of England in Operation Sea Lion.

To soften us up first, the Luftwaffe began bombing raids in July 1940, firstly on military targets, then industrial. However, aided by the introduction of radar and Rolls Royce engines, the RAF’s Hurricanes and Spitfires, although suffering huge losses themselves, were able to retaliate to such a degree that in October 1940 the Operation was cancelled and the Germans turned instead towards Russia.

The 3,000 brave men and women of Fighter Command, led by Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding (1882-1970), had won The Battle of Britain and saved the country. Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill (1874-1965) summarised it perfectly thus:

“Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few.“

This is why the sight and sound of those little aeroplanes is rather emotional for those who remember.

(Top images LtoR: Clemens Vasters at Flickr.com / CC BY 2.0 & jenikirbyhistory.getarchive.net / Public domain)

Stonehenge in Wiltshire is Crown property and its mysterious origins and purpose remain unknown, although Druids believe they have a special connection to it. There are theories that it served as a calendar for Neolithic farmers, or a burial ground or a place for pagan festivals. The word ‘henge’, meaning a prehistoric ring of upright stone, timber or earth surrounding a circular ditch, is taken from the name Stonehenge, which itself means either ‘stone gallows’ or ‘hanging stones’.

Legend tells of the stone formation then called ‘The Giants’ Dance’ being sailed from Ireland to commemorate the spot where British leaders were disgracefully murdered by their Saxon counterparts during negotiations. In a similar vein, giant skeletons have been discovered in Stonehenge’s vicinity, one of which was 14’10” tall. Clearly the “wonder” of this World Heritage Site still has much to be revealed.

However, the stones have been subjected to a spot of house-cleaning ~ between 1901 and 1964 the stones were repositioned and even replaced and finally set into concrete footings in order to create a more aesthetic and tidy impression for the million visitors per year, now only permitted to walk the perimeter. Compare John Constable‘s 1835 Stonehenge painting (left) to a 2008 photograph (right):-

(Top image: Mark Philpott at Flickr.com / CC BY-NC 2.0)

The 1929 ‘Wall Street Crash’ over in the USA had repercussions in the UK which put a halt to big-money investment and spending in our coal, steel, iron and shipbuilding industries. Consequently, there was high unemployment in many areas and men with strong work ethics were placed in poverty and idleness. This state of affairs was known as the ‘Great Depression’ and, following on from the ‘Roaring Twenties’, the 1930s were a stark contrast to former times.

Thus it was that 207 men (and one dog) from Jarrow, on Tyneside in north-east England, decided to march to the House of Commons nearly 300 miles south. They were all checked for fitness before setting off on 5th October 1936. Some marched like soldiers ~ 50 mins. then 10 mins. rest ~ and they all arrived on 31st October to present a petition requesting Government assistance to regenerate Jarrow’s industries. The town’s MP, Ellen Wilkinson (1891-1947), pleaded their cause to deaf ears. Some of the men found employment in London, while others returned home.

Philanthropist Sir John Jarvis (1876-1950) tried to help by setting up a ship-breaking yard and one or two other businesses in Jarrow, but although this was welcomed it was not enough for a once-thriving area that employed thousands.

(Image: jenikirbyhistory.getarchive.net / Public domain)

The scheme to remove children under 17 from their homes in pre-WW2 Nazi Germany, Austria, Poland and Czechoslovakia and bring them to safety in England was later known as ‘Kindertransport’. It was arranged by charity refugee organisations, funded and assisted by the Briish public and legally ratified by Parliament in Westminster. Approximately 10,000 children immigrated in this way from November 1938 to September 1939, most of them Jewish, some from orphanages. The Government’s relaxation of visa rules was intended to be temporary, with the children re-emigrating at age 18. This changed with the outbreak of war.

The operation, being hurried and unregulated, lacked much of the safeguarding one would expect, but many foster families came forward in response to national appeals. Jewish practices were usually unknown in the children’s new surroundings, which was confusing for those accustomed to them back home.

The Kindertransport principle was entirely altruistic in its motives, yet appalling in its process. The normal development of those young lives was completely disrupted and who knows what extraordinary emotions the parents went through. Apparently most of them were killed by the Nazis. After the War, some of the children settled in Britain while others went to live in the newly-formed state of Israel.

(Image of memorial sculpture at the London station where the children arrived: Steve Daniels at geograph.org.uk / CC BY-SA 2.0)

Bede (672/3-735) was a monk who spent his life in Northumbria, mostly in St. Paul’s Monastery in Jarrow. He is the earliest historian of England of whom we are aware. As a dedicated scholar and teacher, he wrote prodigiously, with perhaps 60 books to his name. These covered a range of topics but the most famous is his 5-volume ‘Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum’ (HEGA) which records the country’s conversion to Christianity, thereby including many interesting supplementary details.

Bede gathered his information from the Monastery’s library of 300 books (huge for that time) and from witness accounts, traditional legends, Vatican documents and correspondence with other monasteries. Fortunately, HEGA avoided oblivion during later Viking/Danish occupation as it was copied for distribution all over Europe. It was translated into Old English 150-200 years later and finally put into print some 750 years after Bede’s time.

Through HEGA, Bede promoted the use of the ‘Anno Domini’ (A.D.) counting system for calendar years. His study of timelines included verifying the annual calculation of the date of Easter. In 836 the Church declared him ‘Venerable‘ and in 1899 he was made a saint and a ‘Doctor of the Church’. His industry was thus rewarded posthumously and his legacy is part of British culture.

(Image [cropped]: Lawrence OP at Flickr.com / CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)

Britain has utilised its vast natural coal resources for 1,000 years and many inventions (including railways) arose by way of improving mining safety and efficiency. Coal was essential to the Industrial Revolution since it was the means by which iron was produced. For centuries households had coal-fired boilers and homes would have individual bunkers or cellars for coal storage.

Mining areas were renowned for community spirit engendered by shared toil in difficult conditions. This was a big factor in the miners’ strike that ran from March 1984 to March 1985.

Yorkshireman Arthur Scargill (1938-) led the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) against 20 pit closures, the first of 75 scheduled over a 3-year period. Miners from Yorkshire, Durham, Scotland, Kent and South Wales went on strike, but others in North Wales and Nottinghamshire did not. Margaret Thatcher‘s government rejected the NUM’s arguments and after thousands of  sackings and picket-line arrests and injuries, the strike failed and still workable mines closed.

When the coal industry was nationalised in 1947 there were 850 collieries employing 700,000 men producing 225,000,000 tons of coal per year. Controversially, the National Coal Board (now the ‘Coal Authority’) proceeded to shut down almost all operations, with the last remaining deep mine ~ Yorkshire’s Kellingley Colliery ~ closing in 2015.

(Top image of march in Port Talbot 1984: Alan Denney at Flickr.com / CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)